A Mini Review: Ethical Usage of Animals in Pharmacological Research

Abstract

The utilization of Animals in examination and training goes back to the period when people began to search for approaches to avoid and cure sicknesses. The vast majority of present day's medication revelations were conceivable as a result of the utilization of Animals in examination. The difficulty to proceed with creature tests in instruction and examination proceeds with fluctuated and befuddling rules. Be that as it may, the creature use and their taking care of change in every research center and instructive foundation. It has been accounted for that the Animals are being subjected to difficult systems in instruction and preparing pointlessly. The broad utilization of Animals in poisonous quality studies and testing dermatological arrangements has raised worries about the ways Animals are yielded for these "unessential trials". On the opposite side of the coin are researchers who advocate the applicable and prudent utilization of Animals in exploration so that new disclosures can proceed. In this survey, we talk about the advancement of the utilization of Animals in training and research and how these have been influenced as of late attributable to worries from creature sweethearts and government directions. Various PC reproduction and different models have been prescribed for use as contrasting options to utilization of Animals for pharmacology instruction. In this survey we additionally talk about various Animals for various exploration testing

Keywords

Experimental analysis, Animal modelling, Laboratory tests, Pharmacology

Introduction

Animals make great exploration subjects for an assortment of reasons. Animals are organically like people. They are helpless to a large portion of the same wellbeing issues, and they have short life-cycles so they can without much of a stretch be concentrated on all through their entire life-range or over a few eras. What's more, researchers can without much of a stretch control the earth around the creature (diet, temperature, lighting, and so forth.) [1-7], which would be hard to do with individuals. Nonetheless, the most imperative motivation behind why Animals are utilized is that it is inappropriate to purposely open individuals to wellbeing dangers with a specific end goal to watch the course of an illness.

Animals are utilized as a part of exploration to create medications and therapeutic methods to treat ailments. Researchers may find such medications and systems utilizing elective examination strategies that don't include creatures. On the off chance that the new treatment appears to be encouraging, it is tried in Animals to see whether it is by all accounts protected and viable. In the event that the aftereffects of the creature studies are great, then human volunteers are requested that partake in a clinical trial [8-10]. The creature studies are done first to give restorative analysts a superior thought of what advantages and confusions they are prone to find in people.

Most Commonly used Animals

Exceptionally reproduced rats and mice are the warm blooded animals [11-13], utilized regularly as a part of medicinal exploration. Since rats and mice have such a large number of organic similitudes to people, they make up 90–95% of the well evolved Animals in biomedical exploration. A few strains of rats and mice are defense less to ailments, for example, disease or hypertension. Moreover, rodents create ailments over a range of days or weeks rather than months or years. In the 1980s, noteworthy examination revelations made it conceivable to make strains of mice whose hereditary make-up has been changed with the goal that they convey particular ailment bringing about qualities [14,15].

Different warm blooded animals normally found in examination are guinea pigs, rabbits, hamsters, and homestead creatures, for example, pigs and sheep [16-20]. The majority of these Animals are particularly reared and raised for examination. Analysts pick the species that best parallels the science of what they need to ponder. For instance, sheep give a model to study osteoarthritis [21-25], a breakdown of ligament that happens as individuals age, bringing on torment and aggravation in the joints. Pigs offer a model for examination on skin issues, including what may happen when medication or a poisonous substance is assimilated through the skin [26-30].

Rodents (rats, mice) and non-rodents (rabbits) are normally utilized as a part of this harmfulness examines. Global variety in testing prerequisites can bring about duplication in danger testing [31-35]. For instance, inside the European Union, the neighbourhood lymph hub test (LLNA) is the favoured strategy for evaluating skin sharpening potential, while guinea pig measures are still favoured in different areas of the world e.g., China. Considering the above truths, it is recommended that International uniform conventions be actualized to decrease the quantity of Animals utilized, if not absolutely boycott the poisonous quality tests.

Species, for example, pooches, felines, and non-human primates represent less than 1% of all warm blooded Animals in examination. In spite of the fact that not utilized generally, these Animals have attributes that make them essentially imperative for the investigation of coronary illness, neurological disarranges, and maladies, for example, HIV/AIDS [36-39]. They are likewise required for examination to profit others of their own species, including investigations of cat leukemia or the Ebola infection [40-45].

In India, Animals Are Used in Pharmacology for the following

Typical experiments included effect of drugs on

Central Nervous System                    Reproductive System
Rabbit intestine                                              Frog heart
Rabbit eye                                                        Frog rectus

Models

Animal models of normally happening infections actuated creature models of human sicknesses, restorative testing and lethality thinks about. A couple of these are talked about beneath as:

1. Cosmetic testing

Cosmetic testing on Animals is especially dubious and includes general poisonous quality, eye and skin irritancy, phototoxicity and mutagenicity. The well-known beauty care products monster L'Oréal, had said it would regard the boycott and "no more offer in Europe any completed item with a fixing that was tried on creatures". Beauty care products testing are banned in numerous nations, including the Netherlands, Belgium and the UK.

2. Toxicology testing

Preclinical toxicology tests utilize one million Animals consistently in Europe, which are around 10% of all methods. For every synthetic test, around 5000 Animals are utilized. The most stringent tests are held for medications and nourishment. Various tests are performed, enduring not exactly a month to years to test general harmfulness, eye and skin irritancy [46-50], mutagenicity, cancer-causing nature and teratogenicity [51-53]. These poisonous quality tests give basic data to surveying danger and danger potential. The utility of lethality tests is, however, bantered, subsequent to numerous creature poisonous quality tests don't precisely reflect harmfulness in people, with false constructive results being a specific issue. Then again, false negative tests, as on account of thalidomide poisonous quality in rodents are likewise watched. Poor reproducibility of Draize test in rabbits [54-57], poor extrapolation of wellbeing of acetyl salicylic corrosive, citalopram and recombinant antibodies from Animals to people are different illustrations that accept this reality. To add to this, withdrawal and boycott of various medications as of late including rofecoxib, which was demonstrated safe in creature testing, highlight these honest to goodness worries about extrapolation of creature test results to people. Information from intense tests may meet grouping and marking directions, yet might be of constrained worth for peril and hazard appraisal. Additionally, high measurements of chemicals are utilized as a part of a little number of lab Animals to anticipate the impacts of low dosages in vast number of people. Consequently, sentiment is separated on the best way to utilize this information in a significant way [58-60].

Types of Animlas

1. Rodents: Rat (Sprague Dawley), Mouse, Guinea pig, Gerbil, Hamster

2. Lagomorphs: Rabbit

3. Carnivores: Dog, Cat, Ferret

4. Non-Human Primates: Monkeys, Crabs

Most Usage

1. Rat: (Rattus Novergicus)- The different tissues utilized for the investigation of medications are colon, stomach uteres, ceacum, vas defernece and stomach smooth muscle. Rodent cerebrum tissue is extensievely utilized in radio receptor ligand ponders.

2. Mice: (Mus Musculus)- Mouse spinal rope neurons are utilized as a part of neuro pharmacology for considering neuro transmitter receptor capacities.

3. Rabbits: Some of tissues or organs from rabbit's are heart, aorta, duodenum, and ileum.

4. Guinea pig: A guinea pig tissue, for example, ileum is the most widely recognized arrangement used to consider spasmogen and antispasmodics.

5. Frogs and others

List of Animal Mechanism Which Can Effects on Actions

There are generally utilized Animals for well comprehension medicinal exploration activity on ailments like, case:

1. Rodents: (Mice and Rats): Cancer, Alzheimer’s disease, Cardiovascular diseases, Diabetes, Infectious disease etc [61-64].

2. Guinea pig: Studies on guinea pigs led to the discovery of Vitamin C, Tuberculosis bacterium, Adrenaline

Guinea pigs were used in development of:

➢ Vaccines for diphtheria and TB
➢ Replacement heart valves
➢ Blood transfusion
➢ Kidney dialysis
➢ Antibiotics
➢ Anticoagulants
➢ Asthma medicines
➢ Allergies and respiratory diseases
➢ Nutritional research
➢ Hearing
➢ Safety test

Elements to Consider for Substance Creating Activity is Administration

Administration [65,66] of substances to research facility Animals requires watchful thought and wanting to improve conveyance of the operator to the creature while minimizing potential antagonistic encounters from the system. For all species, a wide range of courses are accessible for organization of substances. The exploration group and IACUC individuals ought to know about purposes behind selecting particular courses and of preparing and competency vital for staff to utilize these courses viably. Once a course is chosen, issues, for example, volume of organization, site of conveyance, pH of the substance, and different components must be considered to refine the system.

Deficient preparing or absent mindedness to detail amid this part of a study may bring about unexpected antagonistic consequences for exploratory Animals and puzzled results. Some are recorded as:

➢ Enteral administration
➢ Intravenous administration.
➢ Administration to skin and muscle.
➢ Epidural and intrathecal administration.
➢ Intraperitoneal administration.
➢ Intranasal, intratracheal, and inhalational administration.
➢ Others: Drug used in Food

Product Development and Drug Testing

➢ Toxicity—LD50 test [67-70]
➢ Eye irritancy-Draize test
➢ Skin irritation, corrosion, sensitization, and absorption tests
➢ Mutagenicity and carcinogenicity
➢ Toxicokinetics and ADME
➢ Metabolic toxicity
➢ Pyrogen testing
➢ Phototoxicity
➢ Embryotoxicity
➢ Endocrine disruptors
➢ Ecotoxicity
➢ Toxicogenomics

Conclusion

By concentrating on these Animals, restorative scientists can realize what causes infections and how to avert, treat, or cure them. These discoveries help both people and creatures. Specialists likewise ponder Animals to see how they adjust to various situations. This can help undermined or imperiled species. Toxicological impacts of the medication in Animals and in vitro [71-91]. The specific studies required rely on upon the way of the medication and the period of human examination. At the point when species specificity, immunogenicity [92-100], or different contemplations seem to make numerous or every single toxicological model insignificant, Overall, creature testing is costly, tedious, eccentric, and not effortlessly reproducible starting with one lab then onto the next (i.e., results need unwavering quality). In view of their cost, bulkiness, and investigative restrictions, creature tests have not satisfactorily tended to the limitless number of chemicals as of now in business use, nor the assessed 700 newones presented each year.

References

1. Festing S and Wilkinson R. The ethics of animal research. Talking Point on the use of animals in scientific research. EMBO Reports. 2007;8:526-530.
2. Doke SK and Dhawale SC. Alternatives to animal testing: A review. Saudi Pharmaceutical Journal. 2015;23:223-229.
3. Ferdowsian HR and Beck N. Ethical and Scientific Considerations Regarding Animal Testing and Research. PLoS ONE. 2011;6:e24059.
4. Kang SW and Han SS. Next Stage of Alternative Approaches to Animals Testing. International Journal of Pharma Research & Review. 2016;8:76205.
5. Dutta RCand Dutta AK. Human-Organoid Models: Accomplishments to Salvage Test-Animals. J Biomed Eng Med Devic. 2016;1:110.
6. Lawrence AJ and Soame JM. The effects of climate change on the reproduction of coastal invertebrates. Int J Avian Sci. 2004;146:29-39.
7. Tollefson J. Heat waves blamed on global warming free. Nature. 2012;488:143-144.
8. Sardi JDCO. Use of Invertebrate Animals as Model to Investigate Infectious Diseases and Toxicity of New Drugs. Clin Microbiol. 2016;5:e133.
9. López-Martín JI, et al. Isolation and Antimicrobial Susceptibility of Salmonella Typhimurium and Salmonella Enteritidis in Fecal Samples from Animals. J Antimicro. 2016;2:109.
10. Lawson K. Clinical Trials for Patients with Fibromyalgia Syndrome. Clin Exp Pharmacol. 2014;4:e134.
11. Karthikeyan M, et al. In-vivo Animal Models and In-vitro Techniques for Screening Antidiabetic Activity. J Develop Drugs. 2016;5:153.
12. Ahmed SF and Elfadl SGA. The Effect of Prenatal Exposure to Nicotine versus Thiocyanate on Pituitary Testicular Axis of Juvenile Albino Rats: A Comparative Histological and Electron Microscopic Study. J Cytol Histol. 2016;S5:002.
13. El-Rashedy AHARH, et al. Role of Fat Feeding on the Diabetic Albino Rats. J Cytol Histol. 2013;4:176.
14. Stengel PW. Insight into Pulmonary Gas Trapping as an Index of Airway Responses in Small Laboratory Animals. J Drug Metab Toxicol. 2014;5:166.
15. Dasgupta C, et al. Developmental nicotine exposure results in programming of alveolar simplification and interstitial pulmonary fibrosis in adult male rats. Reprod Toxicol. 2012;34:370-377.
16. Obregón-Henao A, et al. Cortisone-Forced Reactivation of Weakly Acid Fast Positive Mycobacterium Tuberculosis in Guinea Pigs Previously Treated With Chemotherapy. Mycobac Dis. 2012;2:116.
17. Ryan GJ, et al. Multiple M. tuberculosis phenotypes in mouse and guinea pig lung tissue revealed by a dual-staining approach. PLoS ONE. 2011;5:e11108.
18. Ahmad Z, et al. Comparison of the Denver regimen against acute tuberculosis in the mouse and guinea pig. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2010;65:729-734.
19. Ordway D, et al. The cellular immune response to Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in the guinea pig. J Immunol. 2007;179:2532-2541.
20. Ordway DJ, et al. Evaluation of standard chemotherapy in the guinea pig model of tuberculosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2010;54:1820-1833.
21. Bedada H, et al. Current Status of Ectoparasites in Sheep and Management Practices against the Problem in Ectoparasites Controlled and Uncontrolled Areas of Arsi Zone in Oromia Region, Ethiopia. J Veterinar Sci Technol. 2012;S10:002.
22. Poole TCA, et al. The Validity of CMFDA and Ethd-1 in the Determination of Osteocyte Viability in the Diaphysis of Long Bones in a Sheep Model. J Clin Exp Pathol. 2014;4:201.
23. Stern AR, et al. Isolation and culture of primary osteocytes from the long bones of skeletally mature and aged mice. Biotechniques. 2012;52:361-373.
24. Chen AC, et al. Chondrocyte transplantation to articular cartilage explants in vitro. J Orthop Res. 1997;15:791-802.
25. Athanasou N. A pathological basis of Orthopaedic and Rheumatological disease. London: Arnold: 2001;21-49.
26. Cantisani C, et al. Unusual Skin Toxicity after a Chemotherapic Combination. Clin Pharmacol Biopharm. 2015;4:141.
27. Lisi R, et al. Skin Toxicity after Radiotherapy: About a Case. Biochem Anal Biochem. 2015;4:195.
28. Weiss VC, Serushan M. Kaposi’s sarcoma in a patient with dermatomyositis receiving immunosuppressive therapy. Arch Dermatol. 1982;118:183-185.
29. Deng G, Cassileth BR. Section: skin injury: acute dermatitis and chronic skin changes. (Section IV, Chapter 95) supportive care and quality of life. In: Principles and practice of radiation oncology (5th edn), Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, PN. 2008;2016-2017.
30. Weiss VC, Serushan M. Kaposi’s sarcoma in a patient with dermatomyositis receiving immunosuppressive therapy. Arch Dermatol. 1982;118:183-185.
31. Oliveira JT, et al. Gene Therapy in Rodents Models of Traumatic Peripheral Nerve Injury. J Cell Sci Ther. 2014;5:156.
32. Wang Z, Zhang H. Antidiabetic Effects of Ginseng in Humans and Rodents. J Metabolic Synd. 2012;1:106.
33. Xia L. Cochlear Cell Death Induced Via Cisplatin or Gentamycin in Combination with Furosemide in Rodents. J Clin Toxicol. 2013;166.
34. Campbell KC, et al. D-methionine provides excellent protection from cisplatin ototoxicity in the rat. Hear Res. 1996;102:90-98.
35. Minami SB, et al. Antioxidant protection in a new animal model of cisplatin-induced ototoxicity. Hear Res. 2004;198:137-143.
36. de Almeida ERD, et al. PvuII Genetic Polymorphism of Low Density Lipoprotein Receptor in Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1-Infected Patients: Possible Association with Dyslipidemia. J AIDS Clin Res. 2014;5:362.
37. Humphries SE, et al. What is the clinical utility of DNA testing in patients with familial hypercholesterolaemia? Curr Opin Lipidol. 2008;19:362-368.
38. Usifo E, et al. Low-density lipoprotein receptor gene familial hypercholesterolemia variant database: update and pathological assessment. Ann Hum Genet. 2012;76:387-401.
39. Sudano I, et al. Cardiovascular disease in HIV infection. Am Heart J. 2006;151:1147-1155.
40. Wambani RJ, et al. Ebola Virus Disease: A Biological and Epidemiological Perspective of a Virulent Virus. J Infect Dis Diagn. 2016;1:103.
41. Wiwanitkit V. Is it Sufficient for the Present Emerging 2014 Africa Ebola Virus Infection Outbreak? J Clin Case Rep. 2014;4:e137.
42. Baize S, et al. Emergence of Zaire Ebola virus disease in Guinea. N Engl J Med. 2014;371:1418-1425.
43. Faye O, et al. Chains of transmission and control of Ebola virus disease in Conakry, Guinea, in 2014: an observational study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2015;15:320-326.
44. Baize S, et al. Emergence of Zaire Ebola virus disease in Guinea.N Engl J Med. 2014;371:1418-1425.
45. Wiwanitkit V. The usefulness of case reports in managing emerging infectious disease.J Med Case Rep. 2011;5:194.
46. Saganuwan AS. Toxicology: The Basis for Development of Antidotes. Toxicol open access. 2015;1:e101.
47. Durisova M. Model Based Description of the Pharmacokinetic Behavior of Pentobarbital in Fasted Male Volunteers after Oral Administration of 10 mg of Pentobarbital. Clin Exp Pharmacol. 2016;6:200.
48. Trinh KX, et al. A Novel Anti-tumor Protein from Calloselasma Rhodostoma Venom in Vietnam. Anat Physiol. 2016;6:213.
49. Hichem N, et al. Effect of Chronic Administration of Aluminum Trichloride on Testis among Adult Albino Wistar Rats. J Cytol Histol. 2013;4:195.
50. Abbott LC. Selecting Optimal Animal Models to Investigate Environmental Toxicology. Poult Fish Wildl Sci. 2013;1:e102.
51. Heikal TM, et al. Cyromazine and Chlorpyrifos Induced Renal Toxicity in Rats: The Ameliorating Effects of Green Tea Extract. J Environ Anal Toxicol. 2012;2:146.
52. Bugelski PJ, et al. Differential Effects of Long-lived Erythropoietin Receptor Agonists in Rats. Pharm Anal Acta. 2011;2:133.
53. Deabes MM, et al. Protective Effects of Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG on Aflatoxins- Induced Toxicities in Male Albino Mice. J Environment Analytic Toxicol. 2012;2:132.
54. Lorke D. A new approach to practical acute toxicity testing. Arch Toxicol. 1983;53:275-289.
55. Flecknell PA. Laboratory animals anesthesia. Academic Press, London. 1996.
56. Zhang Y. Why do we study animal toxins?  Dongwuxue Yanjiu. 2015;36:183-222.
57. Tropepe V, Sive HL. Can zebrafish be used as a model to study the neurodevelopmental causes of autism? Genes Brain Behav. 2003;2:268-281.
58. Cetin N, et al. Chlorpyrifos induces cardiac dysfunction in rabbits. Res Vet Sci. 2007;82:405–408.
59. Bugelski PJ, et al. CNTO 530: molecular pharmacology in human UT-7EPO cells and pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics in mice. J Biotechnol. 2008;134: 171-180.
60. Kruszewska D, et al. Selection of Lactic Acid Bacteria as probiotic strains by in vitro tests. Microb Ecol Health Dis. 2002;29:37-49.
61. Giangaspero M, Sekiguchi S. Risk Assessment of Animal Infectious Diseases and Decision Making Process. Clin Microbiol. 2016;5:242.
62. Hocquart M, Lagier JC. Prevotella Denticola Spondylitis. J Clin Case Rep. 2015;5:588.
63. Yeh LT, et al. Diabetic Animal Models with Infectious Diseases: Focus on the Dysfunction of Immune System. J Diabetes Metab. 2014;5:417. doi:10.4172/2155-6156.1000417.
64. Panackal AA. Global Climate Change and Infectious Diseases: Invasive Mycoses. J Earth Sci Climat Change. 2011;1:108.
65. Balabathula P. Nanomedicines can Offer Improved Therapeutic Efficacy through Various Parenteral Routes of Administration. J Nanomed Nanotechnol. 2016;7:e136.
66. Chhibber AK, et al. Pre-Anesthetic Midazolam: A Randomized Trial with Three Different Routes of Administration. J Anesthe Clinic Res. 2011;2:118.
67. Eswaran S, et al. Niacin, the Internet, and Urine Drug Testing: A Cause of Acute Liver Failure. J Clin Toxicol. 2013;3:167.
68. Lornejad-Schäfer MR, et al. Reflection Coefficient S11 Related Measurement System for Label-Free Cell Seeding Analysis and Drug Testing in a Three-Dimensional (3D) Cell Culture Model. J Biosens Bioelectron. 2014;5: 151.
69. Foster LI, et al. Modelling Effects of Drug Testing Procedures on Performance Trends in the Shot Put. J Sports Med Doping Stud. 2014;4:151.
70. Ruan X, Kaye AD. The Debate on Urine Drug Testing in Pain and Addiction Management: Coverage or Non-Coverage? J Pain Relief. 2015;4:188.
71. Sontakke S, et al. Different Types of Transgene Silencing in Animals: A Natural Foundation for RNAi Technology. Mol Biol. 2015;4:137.
72. Demain AL. To Preserve Human Health, It is Time to Stop Feeding Antibiotics to Farm Animals in the USA and Other Countries. J Microb Biochem Technol. 2015;7:e123.
73. Belico de VA, et al. Gel Filtration Chromatography Technique as Tool of Simple Study Seminal Plasma Proteins in Domestic Animals. J Chromatogr Sep Tech. 2015;6:281.
74. Chow S, et al. Universal Primers for Exon-Priming Intron-Crossing (EPIC) PCR on Ribosomal Protein Genes in Marine Animals. J Marine Sci Res Dev. 2015;5:160.
75. Bhardwaj M, et al. Emergence of Carbapenemase Producing Pathogens in Animals. Pharm Anal Acta. 2013;6:379.
76. Justiz-Vaillant A, et al. Two New Immunoassays to Study the Binding Capacity of Staphylococcal Protein A (SpA) or Streptococcal Protein G (SpG) to Sera from Four Mammalian Species Including Wild and Domestic Animals. J Anal Bioanal Tech. 2015;6:235.
77. Abdel-fattah WS, et al. Histological and Histomorphometric Evaluation of Pharmacological Action of the Essential Oil of Melaleuca Alternifolia on Healing of Infected Alveolitis in Experimental Animals. J Interdiscipl Med Dent Sci. 2015;3:177.
78. Santiago-Moreno J, et al. Post-Coital Sperm Competence in Polygamous Animals: The Role of Sperm Traits in Species–Specific Strategies. Andrology. 2015;s1:003.
79. Daneshfozouna H, et al. A Review of Epigenetic Imprints in Aquatic Animals. Fish Aquac J. 2015;6:119.
80. Sakai C, et al.  Species Differences in the Pharmacokinetic Parameters of Cytochrome P450 Probe Substrates between Experimental Animals, such as Mice, Rats, Dogs, Monkeys, and Microminipigs, and Humans. J Drug Metab Toxicol. 2014;5:173.
81. Tamimi L, et al. Pioglitazone HCl Levels and Its Pharmacokinetic Application in Presence of Sucralose in Animals Serum by HPLC Method. Pharm Anal Acta. 2014;5:318.
82. Pasternak JA, et al. Grouping Pig-Specific Responses to Mitogen with Similar Responder Animals may Facilitate the Interpretation of Results Obtained in an Out-Bred Animal Model. J Vaccines Vaccin. 2014;5:242.
83. Tekki IS, et al. Incidences of Rabies in Domestic Animals and Consequent Risk Factors in Humans. J Med Microb Diagn. 2014;3:143.
84. Salih El-Amin E, et al. Toxicity Effects of Hair Dye Application on Liver Function in Experimental Animals. J Clin Toxicol. 2014;4:210.
85. Costa AP, et al. Survey of Leishmania Infantum Chagasi in Wild and Domestic Animals in Urban Area and Atlantic Rainforest Fragment in Northeast, Brazil. J Biodivers Biopros Dev. 2014;1:120.
86. Stengel PW. Insight into Pulmonary Gas Trapping as an Index of Airway Responses in Small Laboratory Animals. J Drug Metab Toxicol. 2014;5:166.
87. Pastore D. The Puzzle of the Molecular Identification of Mitochondrial Potassium Channels: Progress in Animals and Impasse in Plants. Bioenergetics. 2013;2:e118.
88. Raji MA. General Overview of Escherichia coli Infections in Animals in Nigeria. Epidemiol. 2014;4:153.
89. Pogue AI, et al. Evolution of microRNA (miRNA) Structure and Function in Plants and Animals: Relevance to Aging and Disease. Aging Sci. 2014;2:119.
90. Dahiya MS, Yadav SK. Scanning Electron Microscopic Characterization and Elemental Analysis of Hair: A Tool in Identification of Felidae Animals. J Forensic Res. 2013;4:178.
91. Bechard A, Lewis M. Modeling Restricted Repetitive Behavior in Animals. Autism. 2012;S1:006.
92. Baldo V, et al. Immunogenicity and Safety of an MF59^®-Adjuvanted and a Non-Adjuvanted Inactivated Subunit Influenza Vaccine in Adults Affected by Chronic Diseases. J Clin Trials. 2012;2:112.
93. Huu TN, et al. Safety and Immunogenicity of Recombinant, Live Attenuated Tetravalent Dengue Vaccine (CYD- TDV) in Healthy Vietnamese Adults and Children. J Vaccines Vaccin. 2012;3:162.
94. Bravo-Madrigal J. in vitro Immunization: Perspectives on the Development of a System to Assess Vaccine Immunogenicity. J Bacteriol Parasitol. 2014;5: e121.
95. Bandyopadhyay A. Complexities of Protein Therapeutics and Immunogenicity. J Bioanal Biomed. 2015;7:070-074.
96. Maraschiello C. The Relevance of Immunogenicity in Preclinical Development. J Bioanal Biomed. 2014;6:001-004.
97. Hurisa B, et al. Safety and Immunogenicity of ETHIORAB Rabies Vaccine. J Vaccines Vaccin. 2013;4:195.
98. Case A, et al. The Immunogenicity of Peptoid-Protein Conjugates. J Vaccines Vaccin. 2016;7:329.
99. Selvaraj J, et al. Formulation, Efficacy and Immunogenicity Studies of a Liquid State Rabies Vaccine with Magnesium Chloride as Stabilizer. J Vaccines Vaccin. 2015;6:292.
100. López-Martín JI, et al. Isolation and Antimicrobial Susceptibility of Salmonella Typhimurium and Salmonella Enteritidis in Fecal Samples from Animals. J Antimicro. 2016;2:109.