A Review on Targeted Drug Delivery System - Nanoparticles

Abstract

Nanotechnology is defined as the technology that allows manipulation, control, study, and manufacture of structures and devices in the “nanometre” size range. The nanoparticles have novel properties and functions which are different from items made of identical materials. The nanoparticles can open many doors and create new biomedical application by having small particle size, improve solubility, customized surface and multi-functionality. This article presents an over view on nanoparticles and targeted drug delivery system

Keywords

Nanoparticles, Active targeting, passive targeting, drug delivery

Introduction

Drug delivery is a process of administering a pharmaceutical dosage form or therapeutically active substance through different routes to achieve a desirable therapeutic effect [1-5]. The major challenge of drug delivery is to target the drug and to make it available at the site of action to achieve more safety and efficacy. Targeted drug delivery system is designed in such a way that the medicament releases the drug in the targeted area which results maximum therapeutic benefit and less side effects. The advancement of a wide range of Nano scale innovations is starting to change the scientific landscape in terms of disease diagnosis, treatment and symptoms. These Nano scale innovations, referred to as Nano medicines by the National Institutes of Health, can possibly transform sub-atomic disclosures emerging from genomics and proteomics into boundless advantage for patients [6-18].

Targeted Drug Delivery System

Targeted drug delivery system is a novel form of drug delivery system where the drug or medicament is directly targeted or delivered only to the site of action and not to the other organs or cells or tissues and it is also called as smart or advanced drug delivery system [18-24]. This delivery system specifically delivers high concentration of drug or medicament at the infected organs compared to the other organs or tissues which improves efficacy and reduces side effects [25-30].

There are two basic requirements to keep it in the mind to achieve an effective drug delivery system in the design of nanoparticles. The first one is medicament should be able to reach the desired affected cell or organ after its administration and the second one is drug should only act on that particular cell or organ or tissue without effecting the healthy cells or organs or tissues. This can be achieved by mainly two strategies. One is passive and the other is active targeting of the drugs [30-35].

Strategies of Targeting Drug delivery System

There are two basic requirements to keep it in the mind to achieve an effective drug delivery system in the design of nanoparticles. The first one is medicament should be able to reach the desired affected cell or organ after its administration and the second one is drug should only act on that particular cell or organ or tissue without effecting the healthy cells or organs or tissues. This can be achieved by mainly two strategies. One is passive and the other is active targeting of the drugs [36-40].

Passive targeting

Passive targeting drug delivery can be achieved by clocking the macromolecules or nanoparticles with some sort of coating materials like polyethylene glycol (PEG) by which the medicament passively reaches the target organ. This delivery system mainly uses to target the tumor cells through EPR effect [41-44].

Active targeting

Active targeting can be achieved by conjugating the medicament or therapeutic agent to a particular tissue or to a specific ligand or to make more specific to target site [45-48].

Characteristics of Targeted Drug delivery system

It should be biodegradable, biocompatible, nontoxic, and physicochemical stable in vitro and in vivo. Distribution of the drug or medicament should restrict to target cells or tissues or organs and should be uniform. Drug or medication discharge should be controlled and predictable. Drug release does not impact its activity. The drug release should reach the therapeutic level. The delivery system should formulate in such a way that it should be easy, simple and cost effective. Carriers utilized must be bio-degradable [49-53].

Advantages

Higher desired effects can be achieved by administering the smaller doses. The availability of the drug at the site of action is more and lowers the harmful systemic side effects. Targeted molecules like peptides and particulates can be enhanced. Lesser dose compared to conventional drug delivery system. It is selectively targeted to the infectious cells compared to normal or non-infectious cells. Avoidance of first pass or hepatic metabolism [54-59].

Disadvantages

Disposition of the drug at the targeted site many lead to toxic effects. Rapid clearance of drug targeted systems. Requires more knowledge and skills for manufacturing, storage and administration. It is difficult to maintain stability of the dosage form. Diffusion and redistribution of released dosage form [60-65].

Nanoparticles

In the recent years the practices of drug delivery system has changed dramatically. Nanoparticles are used as a novel targeted drug delivery system for many diseases like tumours, brain diseases, Ebola, and some infectious diseases. Nanoparticles are defined as “the particles which are having a size of less than 100nnm’’ or “it is defines as a small objective which behaves as a whole unit with respect to the properties as well as transport” [66-72].

Characteristics of Nanoparticles

Particle size

Currently photon-correlation spectroscopy or dynamic light scattering is the fastest and routine method for determining the size of nanoparticle. In this method viscosity of the medium to be known for determining the participle size by light scattering properties and Brownian motion. The results obtained by this spectroscopic method are verified by transmission electron microscopy or by scanning [73-76].

For nanoparticles particle size and its distribution are the most important characteristics. These characteristics influence the drug loading, drug release and stability behaviour of the nanoparticles. At the same time these characteristics determines the in vivo distribution of drug, toxicity and targeting ability of the delivery system [77-81].

The particle size influences the release of the drug. Smaller particles have larger surface area and most of the drug associate to the smaller particles and it leads to faster drug release. In contrast larger particles have large cores and it allows higher amount of the drug to be encapsulated per particles thus it results slower release. Thus, control of particle size provides a means of drug release rates [82-86].

Surface properties

The conventional carriers which are associated to the drug leads to the modification of bio distribution profile of the drug as it delivers to mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS) such as lungs, bone marrow and liver. Nanoparticles when administered through intravenously are recognised by the host immune system and cleared by phagocytes from the circulation. Apart from this the blood components determines the hydrophobicity of the nanoparticles that binds to this surface. Hence, the hydrophobicity of the nanoparticles influences the in vivo fate of nanoparticles. Surface non-modified nanoparticles in the blood stream are rapidly opsonized and cleared by MPS [87-91].

It is necessary to lower the opsonization and prolong the circulation of nanoparticles in vivo to increase the likelihood of success in targeting drug delivery. This can be achieved by formulating the nanoparticle by coating the nanoparticles with surfactants or hydrophilic polymers or with biodegradable copolymers with hydrophilic characteristics e.g., polysorbate 80 (Tween 80), polyethylene glycol (PEG) and polyethylene oxide [92-94].

Drug loading

A high drug loading capacity should require for a successful nanodelivery system. The drug loading can be achieved basically by two methods. First one is the adsorption/absorption method by which the drug can be absorbed after formation of nanoparticle. This method can be achieved by incubating the nano-carrier with a concentrated drug solution and the efficiency of drug loading and entrapment depends on the solubility of the drug in the excipient matrix material. The second one is incorporation method which requires the drug should be incorporated at the time of nanoparticle formation. The drug entrapment efficacy and loading depends on drug solubility and excipient matrix material and this related to molecular weight, matrix composition, drug polymer interaction and the presence of functional group in drug or matrix [95-97].

Drug release

When formulating or developing a nanoparticulate delivery system it is important to consider both drug release and polymer biodegradation. The drug release rate depends on solubility of the drug, distribution of the drug, desorption of the surface-bound or adsorbed drug, nanoparticle degradation or matrix erosion and the combination of erosion and diffusion process. Hence the parameters like solubility, diffusion and biodegradation of the particle matrix governs the release process. In the case of nanospheres the drug is uniformly distributed and the drug release occurred by erosion of the matrix or diffusion process. If the matrix erosion of the drug is slower than diffusion the mechanism of the drug is largely controlled by the diffusion process. The drug which is loaded by the incorporation method then the system have a sustained release characteristics and relatively small burst effect. The nanoparticle is coated with a polymer, and then the release of the drug is controlled by diffusion process from the polymeric membrane [98-100].

Conclusion

Nanoparticle has multiple advantages in the pharmaceutical formulation. The main advantage of nanoparticles is precise targeted therapy with small doses of drug. Nanoparticle delivery system holds a great potential to overcome obstacles to target a number of diverse cell types. This represents to overcome the problems of drug resistance in targeted organs and facilitates the movement of the drugs across the barriers.

References

1. Patil J. Encapsulation Technology: Opportunity to develop Novel Drug Delivery Systems. J Pharmacovigil. 2016;4:e157.
2. Koushik OS, et al. Nano Drug Delivery Systems to Overcome Cancer Drug Resistance - A Review. J Nanomed Nanotechnol. 2016;7:378.
3. Gopi S, et al. Effective Drug Delivery System of Biopolymers Based On Nanomaterials and Hydrogels - A Review. Drug Des. 2016;5:129.
4. Nirmala MJ and Nagarajan R. Microemulsions as Potent Drug Delivery Systems. J Nanomed Nanotechnol. 2016;7:e139.
5. Mandal B. Personalized Nanotheranotics for Cancer. J Biotechnol Biomater. 2016;6:e127.
6. Zaman HH. Addressing Solubility through Nano Based Drug Delivery Systems. J Nanomed Nanotechnol. 2016;7:376.
7. Ahmad U and Faiyazuddin Md. Smart Nanobots: The Future in Nanomedicine and Biotherapeutics. J Nanomedine Biotherapeutic Discov. 2016;6:e140.
8. Benyettou Fand Motte L. Nanomedicine: Towards the “Magic Bullet” Science. J Bioanal Biomed. 2016;8:e137.
9. Balabathula P. Nanomedicines can Offer Improved Therapeutic Efficacy through Various Parenteral Routes of Administration. J Nanomed Nanotechnol. 2016;7:e136.
10. AbouAitah KEA, et al. pH-controlled Release System for Curcumin based on Functionalized Dendritic Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles. J Nanomed Nanotechnol. 2016;7:351.
11. Krukemeyer MG, et al. History and Possible Uses of Nanomedicine Based on Nanoparticles and Nanotechnological Progress. J Nanomed Nanotechnol. 2015;6:336.
12. Ji HF, et al. Nanomedicine and Biotherapeutics for Antiobiotic Resistance Bacteria. J Nanomedine Biotherapeutic Discov. 2015;5:e138.
13. Lenoir T and Herron P. The NCI and the Takeoff of Nanomedicine. J Nanomedine Biotherapeutic Discov. 2015;5:135.
14. Li W, et al. Effects of Intracellular Process on the Therapeutic Activation of Nanomedicine. Pharm Anal Acta. 2015;6:368.
15. Narayanasamy P. Nanomedicines: Future Against Infections. Chem Sci J. 2014;5:e105.
16. Kazemi A, et al. The Question of Ethics in Nanomedicine. J Clinic Res Bioeth. 2014;5:193.
17. Zhang L, et al. The pharmacokinetic study on the mechanism of toxicity attenuation of rhubarb total free anthraquinone oral colon-specific drug delivery system.Amoxycillin Trihydrate Floating-Bioadhesive Drug Delivery System for Eradication of Helicobacter pylori: Preparation, In Vitro and Ex Vivo Evaluation. Fitoterapia. 2015;104:86-96.
18. Mohsen R, et al. Design, Synthesis, Characterization and Toxicity Studies of Poly (N-IsoPropylacrylamide-co-Lucifer Yellow) Particles for Drug Delivery Applications. J Nanomed Nanotechnol. 2016;7:363.
19. AbouAitah KEA, et al. Mesoporous Silica Materials in Drug Delivery System: pH/Glutathione- Responsive Release of Poorly Water-Soluble Pro-drug Quercetin from Two and Three-dimensional Pore-Structure Nanoparticles. J Nanomed Nanotechnol. 2016;7:360.
20. Van Tilburg CWJ. Spinal Analgesic Drug Delivery for Ehlers-Danlos Hypermobility Type Chronic Pain Treatment: A Case Report. J Pain Relief. 2016;5:235.
21. Colone M, et al. (2016) Redox-active Microcapsules as Drug Delivery System in Breast Cancer Cells and Spheroids. J Mol Genet Med. 2016;10:200.
22. Kumar P, et al. (2016) Synthesis of Dox Drug Conjugation and Citric Acid Stabilized Superparamagnetic Iron-Oxide Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery. Biochem Physiol 2016;5:194.
23. Patil JS. Significance of Particulate Drug Delivery System in Antimicrobial Therapy. Adv Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2016;5:139.
24. Patil J. Advances in Drug Delivery Strategies for Cancer Therapeutics. J Pharmacovigil. 2016;S3:e002.
25. Lopes CM and Soares C. Transdermal Drug Delivery Systems Activated by Physical stimuli: Techniques and Applications. Drug Des. 2015;4:e129.
26. Wang X and Lu W. Active Targeting Liposomes: Promising Approach for Tumor-Targeted Therapy. J Bioequiv Availab. 2016;8:13-14.
27. Shanmugan P and Bandameedi R. Chronotherapeutic Drug Delivery Systems. J Drug Metab Toxicol. 2015;6:194.
28. Patil JS. Hydrogel System: An Approach for Drug Delivery Modulation. Adv Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2015;4:e135.
29. Naydenov T, et al. Opinion of Bulgarian Pharmacists on Drug Delivery Systems, Orodispersible and Pediatric Dosage Forms. J App Pharm. 2015;8:211.
30. Patil J. Hydrodynamically Balanced Gastro-Retentive Site Specific Drug Delivery System: An Innovative Approach. J Pharmacovigil. 2015;3:e146.
31. Jassim-Jaboori AH and Oyewumi MO. 3D Printing Technology in Pharmaceutical Drug Delivery: Prospects and Challenges. J Biomol Res Ther. 2015;4:e141.
32. Saikia C, et al. Chitosan: A Promising Biopolymer in Drug Delivery Applications. J Mol Genet Med. 2015;S4:006.
33. Maroof K, et al. Scope of Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery. J Bioequiv Availab. 2016;8:1-5.
34. Addor FAS and Guerra Neri SRN. Injectable Polyethylene Glycol Gel as Dermal Filler: 01 Year Clinical and Ultrasound Follow-Up. J Clin Exp Dermatol Res. 2016;7:331.
35. Enomoto M, et al. Effects of Dyeing Temperature and Molecular Structure on the Dye Affinity of Polyurethane Films containing Polyethylene Glycol Segments. J Textile Sci Eng. 2015; 5:224.
36. Brikov AV, et al. Rheological Properties of Polyethylene Glycol Solutions and Gels. Ind Chem Open Access. 2015;1:102.
37. Beaulieu S, et al. Seizure Associated with Hyponatremia Possibly Related to the Use of Polyethylene Glycol and Electrolytes Preparation. J Clin Toxicol. 2015;5:229.
38. Hutanu D, et al. Recent Applications of Polyethylene Glycols (PEGs) and PEG Derivatives. Mod Chem appl. 2014;2:132.
39. Diab KAE, et al. Assessment of Genotoxicity and Histopathological Changes Induced by Polyethylene Glycol (PEG6000) in Male Mice. J Cytol Histol. 2012;3:153.
40. Muehlmann LA and de Azevedo RB. There is Plenty of Room at the Bottom for Improving Chemotherapy: Exploiting the EPR Effect with Nanotechnology. Chemotherapy. 2012;1:e116.
41. Verma A, et al. Human Hair: A Biodegradable Composite Fiber – A Review. Int J Waste Resour. 2016;6:206.
42. Naïmaa T, et al. Sorting-Composting of Biodegradable Waste in the Municipality of Chief (Algeria): The Key Steps. Int J Waste Resour. 2016;6:204.
43. Annibali S, et al. Histomorphometric Evaluation of Bone Regeneration Induced by Biodegradable Scaffolds as Carriers for Dental Pulp Stem Cells in a Rat Model of Calvarial "Critical Size" Defect. J Stem Cell Res Ther. 2016;6:322.
44. Ramadugu P, et al. A Review on Biodegradable and Bioabsorbable Stents for Coronary Artery Disease. J Bioequiv Availab. 2016;8:64-67.
45. Kumar CV and Baveghems C. Biodegradable, Biocompatible, Bioinspired and Bioabsorbale (Edible) Functional Materials for Solar Cell Applications. Chem Sci J. 2015;6:106.
46. Repanas A, et al. Coaxial Electrospinning as a Process to Engineer Biodegradable Polymeric Scaffolds as Drug Delivery Systems for Anti-Inflammatory and Anti-Thrombotic Pharmaceutical Agents. Clin Exp Pharmacol. 2015;5:192.
47. Ahmed H, et al. Utilising Oesophageal Biodegradable Stent in Benign Pyloric Stenosis: Novel Technique. J Gastrointest Dig Syst. 2015;5:307.
48. Rahmani V, et al. Nanoencapsulation of Insulin Using Blends of Biodegradable Polymers and In Vitro Controlled Release of Insulin. J Chem Eng Process Technol. 2015;6:228.
49. Vaegler M, et al. A Bovine Collagen Type I-Based Biodegradable Matrix as a Carrier for Tissue-Engineered Urothelium. J Stem Cell Res Ther. 2015;5:275.
50. Yeh TY. Biostimulator and Biodegradable Chelator to Pytoextract not Very Toxic Cu and Zn. Hydrol Current Res. 2015;6:190.
51. Mistry KR and Sarker DK. SLNs can Serve as the New Brachytherapy Seed: Determining Influence of Surfactants on Particle Size of Solid Lipid Microparticles and Development of Hydrophobised Copper Nanoparticles for Potential Insertion. J Chem Eng Process Technol. 2016;7:302.
52. Alaqad K and Saleh TA. Gold and Silver Nanoparticles: Synthesis Methods, Characterization Routes and Applications towards Drugs. J Environ Anal Toxicol. 2016;6:384.
53. Heidari A. Pharmacogenomics and Pharmacoproteomics Studies of Phosphodiesterase-5 (PDE5) Inhibitors and Paclitaxel Albumin-stabilized Nanoparticles as Sandwiched Anti-cancer Nano Drugs between Two DNA/RNA Molecules of Human Cancer Cells. J Pharmacogenomics Pharmacoproteomics. 2006;7:e153.
54. Sreelakshmy V, et al. Green Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles from Glycyrrhiza glabra Root Extract for the Treatment of Gastric Ulcer. J Develop Drugs. 2016;5:152.
55. Israel LL, et al. Ultrasound-Mediated Surface Engineering of Theranostic Magnetic Nanoparticles: An Effective One-Pot Functionalization Process Using Mixed Polymers for siRNA Delivery. J Nanomed Nanotechnol. 2016;7:385.
56. Yadav JP, et al. Characterization and Antibacterial Activity of Synthesized Silver and Iron Nanoparticles using Aloe vera. J Nanomed Nanotechnol. 2016;7:384.
57. Dou Z, et al. Effect of Al2O3 Nanoparticles Doping on the Microwave Dielectric Properties of CTLA Ceramics. J Material Sci Eng. 2016;5:256.
58. Kumari VG, et al. Synthesis and Characterization of Pectin Functionalized Bimetallic Silver/Gold Nanoparticles for Photodynamic Applications. J Phys Chem Biophys. 2016;6: 221.
59. Heydrnejad MS and Samani RJ. Sex Differential Influence of Acute Orally-administered Silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) on Some Biochemical Parameters in Kidney of Mice Mus musculus. J Nanomed Nanotechnol. 2016;7:382.
60. Jibowu T. The Formation of Doxorubicin Loaded Targeted Nanoparticles using Nanoprecipitation, Double Emulsion and Single Emulsion for Cancer Treatment. J Nanomed Nanotechnol. 2016;7:379.
61. Hafez EM, et al. The Neonicotinoid Insecticide Imidacloprid: A Male Reproductive System Toxicity Inducer-Human and Experimental Study. Toxicol open access. 2016;2:108.
62. Li C, et al. Development and Validation of a Method for Determination of Encapsulation Efficiency of CPT-11/DSPE-mPEG2000 Nanoparticles. Med chem. 2016;6:345-348.
63. Heidari A. Pharmaceutical and Analytical Chemistry Study of Cadmium Oxide (CdO) Nanoparticles Synthesis Methods and Properties as Anti- Cancer Drug and its Effect on Human Cancer Cells. Pharm Anal Chem Open Access. 2016;2:113.
64. Heidari A. A Chemotherapeutic and Biospectroscopic Investigation of the Interaction of Double–Standard DNA/RNA–Binding Molecules with Cadmium Oxide (CdO) and Rhodium (III) Oxide (Rh2O3) Nanoparticles as Anti–Cancer Drugs for Cancer Cells’ Treatment. Chemo Open Access. 2016;5: e129.
65. Kumar B, et al. Aqueous Phase Lavender Leaf Mediated Green Synthesis of Gold Nanoparticles and Evaluation of its Antioxidant Activity. Biol Med. 2016;8: 290.
66. Heidari A. Novel and Stable Modifications of Intelligent Cadmium Oxide (CdO) Nanoparticles as Anti-Cancer Drug in Formation of Nucleic Acids Complexes for Human Cancer Cells’ Treatment. Biochem Pharmacol.2016;5:207.
67. Stab J, et al. Flurbiprofen-loaded Nanoparticles Can Cross a Primary Porcine In vitro Blood-brain Barrier Model to Reduce Amyloid-ß42 Burden. J Nanomedine Biotherapeutic Discov. 2016;6:140.
68. Moradpour M, et al. Establishment of in vitro Culture of Rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) from Field-derived Explants: Effective Role of Silver Nanoparticles in Reducing Contamination and Browning. J Nanomed Nanotechnol. 2016;7:375.
69. Bhattacharyya S, et al. Modulating the Glucose Transport by Engineering Gold Nanoparticles. J Nanomedine Biotherapeutic Discov. 2016;6:141.
70. Francisco JC, et al. Acellular Human Amniotic Membrane Scaffold Loaded with Nanoparticles Containing 15d-PGJ2: A New System Local Anti-Inflammatory Treatment of Eye Diseases. J Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2016;7:537.
71. Ghanbari M, et al. Study of the Cytotoxicity Effect of Doxorubicin-loaded/Folic acid-Targeted Super Paramagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles on AGS Cancer Cell Line. J Nanomed Nanotechnol. 2016;7:368.
72. Pereira da Silva S, et al. Iron Oxide Nanoparticles Coated with Polymer Derived from Epoxidized Oleic Acid and Cis-1,2-Cyclohexanedicarboxylic Anhydride: Synthesis and Characterization. J Material Sci Eng. 2016;5:247.
73. Oh S and Borrós S. Mucoadhesion vs mucus permeability of thiolated chitosan polymers and their resulting nanoparticles using a quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation (QCM-D). Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces. 2016;147:434-441.
74. Lee J, et al. Developmental toxicity of intravenously injected zinc oxide nanoparticles in rats. Arch Pharm Res. 2016.
75. Bhargava A, et al. Utilizing metal tolerance potential of soil fungus for efficient synthesis of gold nanoparticles with superior catalytic activity for degradation of rhodamine B. J Environ Manage. 2016.
76. Li Y, et al. Factors affecting the in vitro micronucleus assay for evaluation of nanomaterials. Mutagenesis. 2016.
77. Noori MT, et al. Biofouling inhibition and enhancing performance of microbial fuel cell using silver nano-particles as fungicide and cathode catalyst. Bioresour Technol. 2016.
78. Presnova G, et al. Biosensor based on a silicon nanowire field-effect transistor functionalized by gold nanoparticles for the highly sensitive determination of prostate specific antigen. Biosens Bioelectron. 2016.
79. Zhang P, et al. Impact of dose, route, and composition on the immunogenicity of immune polyelectrolyte multilayers delivered on gold templates. Biotechnol Bioeng. 2016.
80. Romih T, et al. The role of PVP in the bioavailability of Ag from the PVP-stabilized Ag nanoparticle suspension. Environ Pollut. 2016.
81. He Z, and Alexandridis P. Ionic liquid and nanoparticle hybrid systems: Emerging applications. Adv Colloid Interface Sci. 2016.
82. Wu J, et al. Excellently reactive Ni/Fe bimetallic catalyst supported by biochar for the remediation of decabromodiphenyl contaminated soil: Reactivity, mechanism, pathways and reducing secondary risks. J Hazard Mater. 2016.
83. Liu H, et al. Interaction between fluorescein isothiocyanate and carbon dots: Inner filter effect and fluorescence resonance energy transfer. Spectrochim Acta A Mol Biomol Spectrosc. 2016.
84. Zhang B, et al. Optimization of the tumor microenvironment and nanomedicine properties simultaneously to improve tumor therapy. Oncotarget. 2016.
85. Qi Z, and Chen Y. Charge-transfer-based terbium MOF nanoparticles as fluorescent pH sensor for extreme acidity. Biosens Bioelectron. 2016.
86. Liu X, et al. Novel hybrid probe based on double recognition of aptamer-molecularly imprinted polymer grafted on upconversion nanoparticles for enrofloxacin sensing. Biosens Bioelectron. 2016.
87. Zhao Q, et al. Titania nanotubes decorated with gold nanoparticles for electrochemiluminescent biosensing of glycosylated hemoglobin. Anal Chim Acta. 2016.
88. Wang C, et al. Direct electrochemical detection of kanamycin based on peroxidase-like activity of gold nanoparticles. Anal Chim Acta. 2016.
89. Paul JW, et al. Drug Delivery to the Human and Mouse Uterus using Immunoliposomes Targeted to the Oxytocin Receptor. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2016.
90. Ivanoff CS, et al. AC electrokinetic drug delivery in dentistry using an interdigitated electrode assembly powered by inductive coupling. Biomed Microdevices. 2016;18:84.
91. Lajunen T, et al. Light activated liposomes: Functionality and prospects in ocular drug delivery. J Control Release. 2016.
92. Wang S, et al. Biologically Inspired Polydopamine Capped Gold Nanorods for Drug Delivery and Light-mediated Cancer Therapy. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2016.
93. Abo Enin HA and Abdel-Bar HM. Solid super saturated self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (sat-SNEDDS) as a promising alternative to conventional SNEDDS for improvement rosuvastatin calcium oral bioavailability. Expert Opin Drug Deliv. 2016.
94. Sivaraman A and Banga AK. Novel in situ forming hydrogel microneedles for transdermal drug delivery. Drug Deliv Transl Res. 2016.
95. Carbone EJ, et al. Osteotropic Nanoscale Drug Delivery Systems Based On Small Molecule Bone-Targeting Moieties. Nanomedicine. 2016.
96. Mäger I, et al. Targeting blood-brain-barrier transcytosis - perspectives for drug delivery. Neuropharmacology. 2016.
97. Denzi A, et al.Exploring the Applicability of Nano-Poration for Remote Control in Smart Drug Delivery Systems. J Membr Biol. 2016.
98. Gou M, et al. Facile one-pot synthesis of carbon/calcium phosphate/Fe3O4 composite nanoparticles for simultaneous imaging and pH/NIR-responsive drug delivery. Chem Commun. 2016.
99. Wim H De J and Paul JA B. Drug delivery and nanoparticles: Applications and hazards. Int J Nanomedicine. 2008;3:133–149.