Silver Nanoparticles: The Good, The Bad and The Future

Abstract

Silver nanoparticles are today a standout amongst the most generally utilized nanoparticles both in key therapeutic sciences and clinical practice. These nanoparticles are additionally consolidated into numerous business items and broadly accessible to all inclusive community. Be that as it may, late reports have connected silver nanoparticles to modified cell demise, and expanded cytotoxicity in specific conditions. This review concentrates on the late discoveries in regards to the promising future and atomic collaborations of silver nanoparticles with living cells and tissues. Potential immune-modulatory impacts of silver nanoparticles and in addition late lethality concerns are additionally talked about. This review article discusses the good, the bad and the future impact of silver nanoparticles.

Keywords

Silver nanoparticles, Cytotoxicity, Anti-microbial, Anti-bacterial, Biosynthesis, Green chemistry.

Introduction

Over the period of last two decade the conventional formulation of medicine has taken a considerable development. Among the different approaches for the development of advanced delivery systems-Nano sized drug delivery [1] has grasped the most contemplation. This new concept of using a nano-approach has opened doors for different treatment possibilities [2]. Numerous approaches are being utilized for the preparation of nanoparticle [3]. The bottom up and the top down technique are the most discussed ones. The synthesis methods includes: Chemical, physical and biogenic method of synthesis of nanoparticles [4]. The field of nanotechnology is emerging day by day, not only having its impact on the pharmaceutical world but also this new science form is being exploited in the field of physics, chemistry, biological applications etc [5]. Nanoparticles or more broadly nano-materials [6] are not only fabricated by single material but also by using organic and inorganic materials [5].

Researchers around the world are now exploiting this tool for developing differently coated nanoparticles which affects the pharmacological properties as well as the pharmacodynamics [7] of the drug. Gold coated nanoparticles [5] and silver coated nanoparticles are the most researched topic in the nanoparticle division. Apart from this iron oxide nanoparticles are also gaining popularity in biomedical and diagnostic purposes [8,9].

The Good

Silver, has been traditionally known for its antibacterial activity [10]. Silver nanoparticles are now widely studied not only due to their application as antimicrobials [11] as well as antivirals, but also for their uses in consumer products like electronics, paint, clothing, food and medical devices [12].

Asadi et al., studied the effect of silver nanoparticle on Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli colonies, in which the researcher concluded with positive results. The minimum inhibitory concentration of silver nanoparticles for S. aureus and E. coli were 5 and 10 mg.L^-1 respectively. Moreover, both bacteria were killed in concentration range 50 mg.L^-1 of silver nanoparticles [10].

Banach et al., also confirmed in their study that nano-silver at the concentration range of 5-15 ppm was effective as biocidal agent [13]. Nano-silver suspensions are components of paint coatings, thus it may provide the possibility to prevent the growth of micro-organism on walls [14].

Banach et al., [14] reported the antifungal efficacy of building materials enriched with silver nanoparticles. Krishnan et al., determined the Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) [15] and Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC) of silver nanoparticles and Enterococcus faecalis [16]. The result from the study concluded that silver nanoparticles have bactericidal effects against E. faecalis at a concentration of 5 mg/ml [17]. Berton et al., evaluated the antimicrobial effectiveness of silver nanoparticles against two Salmonella enterica strains (enteritidis and senftenberg) utilising Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) [18]. The researchers reported structural damages in S. Enteritidis and S. senftenberg following the interactions with silver nanoparticles, proposing the utility of TEM to investigate the effect of nanoparticles on live bacteria [19].

Sing et al. [20] synthesized silver nanoparticles from the stem of Tinospora cordifolia, [21] and analysed their antibacterial activity against multidrug-resistant strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The researchers concluded that even a small concentration of silver nanoparticles prepared from T. cordifolia possess decent antibacterial activity. The silver nanoparticles of stem of Tinospora cordifolia showed the zone of inhibition ranges from 10 ±

0.58 to 21 ± 0.25 mm. The MIC of silver nanoparticles from stem extract was found to be 6.25 - 200 μg/ml against Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains[20]. Ansari et al.,[22] in their study suggested that silver nanoparticles exhibitsexcellent bacteriostatic and bactericidal activity [23]. The bactericidal effect of silver nanoparticles was found to be prominent towards both sensitive and resistant strains.

Apart from the pharmaceutical application, the antibacterial and antimicrobial activities of silver nanoparticles have been exploited waste water treatment. Shahrokh et al., studied the impact of silver nanoparticles on aerobic nitrate reduction. The results concluded that silver nanoparticle has no significant impact on denitrification [24] process as it is an important part of nitrogen cycle. The silver nanoparticles at certain concentrations showed promising results as biocide for waste water treatment [25].

The aquaculture industry or the global sea food market is expanding [26]. The pacific white shrimp, L. vannamei is one of the most prominent marine aquaculture species[27,28]. First introduced in China in the late1980’s, by 2010 it became the world’s three major farmed shrimp, accounting 85% of the total shrimp production in China [27]. The world total production of L. vannamei is raised from less than 10,000 metric tons in 1970 to more than 3,000,000 metric tons in next four decades [29,30]. However, with the outbreak of vibriosis, aquaculture industries faced huge losses. Sivaramasamy et al., in his study demonstrated that administration of biosynthesized silver nanoparticles improved the growth performance as well as immune response with better survival rate against the pathogenic bacterium V. parahaemolyticus [31].

The ever increasing demand for milk and milk products has made the Dairy Industry [32] in India to become the world's largest milk producer consuming almost 100% of its own milk production.

Madal et al., [33] showed that Nano composites, hydroxyapatite particle can be effectively used as an absorbent for treatment of dairy wastewater [33].

Green synthesis of Nanoparticles

Green synthesis is gaining popularity for the production of not only nanoparticles but also in other chemical preparations [34].Green chemistry to improve and/or protect our global environment is focal issues in many fields of research [35].

The development of cost efficient and ecologically benign methods of synthesis of nanomaterial’s still remains a scientific challenge as metal nanoparticles are of use in various catalytic applications, via electronics, biology and biomedical applications, material science, physics, environmental remediation fields [36,37].

This is a revolutionary step for the environmental friendly synthesis of nanoparticles. The process not only involves the plant extracts [38] as reducing or capping agents but also some microbes in which their internal metabolism is exploited for nanoparticle formation [39].

Sreelakshmy et al., [34] formulated silver nanoparticles from bio-reduction of silver nitrate solution using Glycyrrhiza glabra root extract. His study revealed that the green synthesized silver nanoparticles provide apromising approach for gastric ulcer therapy [34]. Yadav et al., [40] in their study biosynthesized silver and iron nanoparticles using the aqueous extract of Aloe vera and further tested their antibacterial activity. Aloe vera has been shown to have anti-inflammatory [41,42] immune-stimulatory activity [43-45]. The comparative study of biosynthesized silver and iron nanoparticles, suggested that silver nanoparticles of Aloe vera are more potent antibacterial than their iron counterpart [40].

Gandhi et al., [46] in their study proposed an economical, eco-friendly [47] and cost effective biosynthetic method in which Escherichia coli [48] was used as a source for the synthesis of silver nanoparticles extracellulary [46].

Bindhani and Panigrahi [49] synthesized silver nanoparticles in aqueous medium using leaf extracts of Ocimum sanctum L. The researchers concluded that the prepared silver nanoparticles showed significantantibacterial activity against Enterobacter cloacae, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcush aemolytius, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus vulgaris, Proteus mirabilis aeruginosa [49].

Prasad et al., [51] formulated silver nanoparticles from the aqueous extract of Papaya peel, which was used as capping and reducing agent. The researcher further concluded that the preparation of silver nanoparticles by their proposed method is eco-friendly and non-toxic compared to conventional physical and chemical methods [51].

Bhakya et al., [52] reported biosynthesis of silver nanopartilces using the different parts of Vishanika or Indian screw tree, which is an ayurvedic medicinal tree [53]. They further concluded that silver nanoparticles synthesized from different extract of H. isora had better reduction properties [52].

Ahmed and Ikram [54] reported the biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles using Terminalia arjuna leaf extracts. The researcher further reported that the prepared silver nanoparticles showed significant antimicrobial activity [54]. Ghozali et al., [55] reported the biosynthesis [56] of silver nanoparticles from the extract of C. roseus leaf extracellular by rapid reduction of silver ions.

Pandian et al., [57] reported the synthesis of silver nanoparticles by bacteria Pseudomonas aeruginosa AMB AS7 and the role of bio-surfactant in enhancing the stability of silver nanoparticles.

The researcher analysed both chemical and biological method and concluded that silver nanoparticles synthesized from biological method showed significant stability. The bio-surfactants [58] showed superior property than their chemical counterparts [57].

Balashanmugam et al., [59] reported fungus mediated synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Microporus xanthopus. The biosynthesized silver nanoparticles showed potent activity against Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus [60] Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae and shigella sp. Agrawal et al., [61] reported the synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Azadirachta indica [62] extract and incorporated it into dental fillings material to confer its antibacterial activity. The researcher further confirmed antibacterial activity of developed silver nanoparticles by agar diffusion test against E. coli and S. mutans [61].

Hungund et al., [63] synthesized nanoparticles using extract of various fruit juices like sweet lime, lime and orange as reducing and capping agent for silver nitrate. Furthermore, the researcher concluded that the prepared silver nanoparticle showed antibacterial property against E. coli, Salminella typhi, Klebsiella pneumonia [64] and Staphylococcus aureus which was supported by the results of agar well diffusion method.

Mani et al, [65] reported the synthesis of silver nanoparticles using the aqueous extract of the in ripe fruits of Piper nigrum. The prepared silver nanoparticles were further evaluated for its in vitro anti-inflammatory activity. The result of their study confirmed the enhanced anti-inflammatory activity of the prepared formulation due to the synergistic effect of alkaloids of Piper nigrum [66] extract and silver ions. Omaparkash and Sharada [67] reported the green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Elettaria cardamom seed extract as reducing agent. The prepared silver nanoparticles showed antibacterial activity against Bacillus subtilis [68].

El-Deeb et al., [69] demonstrated the synthesis of silver nanoparticles using honey bee [70] extract. The researchers further investigated the anti-colon cancer activity of biogenic silver nanoparticles. Their result concluded that both silver nanoparticles and its capping biomolecules have anti-proliferative effect.

Singh et al., [71] evaluated the antimicrobial efficacy of silver nanoparticles biosynthesized from aqueous extracts of Phyllanthus amarus and Tinospora cordifolia. The researchers concluded that the antimicrobial activity of biosynthesized nanoparticles was higher than that of the standard drug streptomycin and ketoconazole [72].

Durairaj et al., [73] synthesized silver nanoparticles using Penicillium notatum [74] and further quantified the potential of fungi based silver nanoparticles against Culix quinquefasciatus larvae. The study concluded that the prepared formulation was induced constituent mortality against 2^nd and 3^rd stage of C. quinquefasciatus larvae. The study suggested that silver nanoparticles can be used to control vector and vector borne diseases.

Banu and Rathod [75] reported the biosynthesis of mono-dispersed silver nanoparticles and further evaluated its antibacterial activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis [76]. The researchers reported the synthesis of silver nanoparticles using a cell free filtrate of R. stolonifer. The study concluded the synergistic antibacterial effect of biosynthesized silver nanoparticles with antibiotics against clinically isolated ESBL-strains.

Singh et al., [77] biosynthesized silver nanoparticles from Tinospora cordifolia and further evaluated it against multi drug resistant (MDR) strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa [78] isolated from burn patients. The study concluded excellent potential of biosynthesized silver nanoparticles as an antibacterial agent against MDR strains of P. aeruginosa.

Shahaby et al., biosynthesized silver nanoparticles from Rumex dentatus and further evaluated it for its antimicrobial activity against pathogenic bacterial and fungal strains [79]. Borase et al., [80] reported the larvicidal [81] and insecticidal properties of biosynthesized nanoparticles from the leaf extracts of J. gossypifolia, E. tirucalli, P. tithymaloides and A. macrophylla.

The Bad

The present comprehension about silver nanoparticles inclination of tissue statement and related unfriendly impacts is constrained [82,83] be that as it may, the oral harmfulness of silver nanoparticles is of specific worry to guarantee open and buyer wellbeing. Kidney could be an objective in view of its part in disposal of xenobiotics [84]. Heydrnejas et al., [85] studied the sex differential influence of silver nanoparticles on the kidney of mice Mus musculus [86]. The researchers concluded that the silver nanoparticles had a more maintained lethal impact on the capacity of female as opposed to male mice kidney.

Abdolsamad et al., [87] reported the effect of silver nanoparticles on chlorophyll A and carotene content in the microalgae Chlorella vulgaris [88] The researcher reported that the exposed silver nanoparticles can all the more effectively discharge their valance layer electrons, so in the high focus valance layer electrons comes in fast response with other accessible electrons in the media, it cause a great deal undesirable and undesirable response, which cause the cell to experience stresses and in some cases dead.

Bruneau et al., [89] reported the immune-toxic effects of silver nanoparticles on Rainbow Trout in natural water. The researcher concluded that brown water expands the Ag+ openness in media, advancing their accessibility for fish tissues, and immune-stimulation without oxidative anxiety. In green water, silver was just bio-accumulated [90] in gills when presented to AgNO₃. AgNO₃ triggers leucocytes incitement and hepatic professional provocative reaction (COX). The bioavailability of colloidal AgNO₃ in faucet water instigated high aggregation in the liver without hepatic damage. Resistant bothers were seen as immunosuppression and oxidative anxiety in pronephros [89].

If there should be an occurrence of silver nanoparticles discharge in nature, water like cocoa water could build the scattering of silver nanoparticles in monomeric structure or little totals, advancing their long haul bioavailability and their assimilation as NP. Further research on nano-toxicity [91] ought to consider presentation conditions and silver nanoparticles destiny in water media for danger appraisals [89].

Morris and Behzad [92] examined the impacts of gold (Au) and silver (Ag) nanoparticles on an ordinarily utilized enzymatic response between horseradish peroxidase (HRP) and the substrate, 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB). Two unique systems were utilized as a part of their study. The first was the expansion of little amounts of nanoparticles, specifically onto an answer of streptavidin peroxidase (streptavidin bound to HRP), before its response with TMB. The second was the expansion of nanoparticles to immobilized streptavidin peroxidase, covalently limited to wells of a microtiter plate. In both cases, responses with TMB were measured by noticeable absorbance spectroscopy, utilizing a microtiter plate reader. The outcomes demonstrate that both gold and silver nanoparticles have a noteworthy effect; with gold smothering the response and silver improving it. Enzymatic responses are impacted by nanoparticles. The instrument of these nanoparticle-protein communications are as of now under scrutiny. This is a critical territory of exploration, since the capacity to direct enzymatic action could conceivably prompt new procedures for chemical control and alteration, with conceivable use in new medication advancements and modern applications. It additionally connotes likely lethality of nanoparticles as they turn out to be all the more generally present in ordinary life by means of off-the-counter accessible beautifying agents and family unit products [92].

Coccini et al., [93] reported as per an extensive number of writing information, bolster the confirmation of the capacity of silver nanoparticles to bring about natural and dangerous impacts that are impossible to miss of their nano-scale [94] properties, and may add to give data expected to figure out whether the as of now settled ACGIH gauges (for word related introduction to silver mixes) are additionally sufficient to shield laborers and buyers from any potential unsafe exposures to silver nanoparticles [93].

The utilization of silver nanoparticles in restorative and buyer items, for example, wound dressings, garments and corrective has expanded essentially as of late. Still, the impact of these particles on our wellbeing and particularly on our mind has not been inspected sufficiently up to now [95]. The study considered the impact of AgEO-(Ethylene Oxide) and AgCitrate-Nanoparticles (NPs) on the defensive obstructions of the cerebrum, to be specific the blood brain barrier (BBB) [96] and the blood-cerebrospinal liquid (blood-CSF) boundary in vitro. The NPs lethality was assessed by analyzing changes in layer uprightness, cell morphology, boundary properties, oxidative anxiety and incendiary responses. Silver nanoparticles diminished cell feasibility, aggravated obstruction uprightness and tight intersections and activated oxidative anxiety and DNA strand breaks. Be that as it may, all said impacts were, at any rate somewhat, smothered by a Citrate-covering and were most maintained in the phones of the BBB when contrasted with the epithelial cells speaking to the blood-CSF boundary. AgEO-however not AgCitrate-NPs additionally set off a provocative response in porcine mind hair like endothelial cells (PBCEC), which speak to the BBB. Our information demonstrates that silver nanoparticles may bring about unfriendly impacts inside the blood brain barrier, yet their poisonous quality can be decreased by picking a proper covering material. The outcomes were the first proof for the poisonous quality of silver nanoparticles towards cell of brain origin [95].

Lee et al., [97] reported that silver nanoparticles prompt hepatotoxicity [98] by means of oxidative anxiety. The oxidative anxiety prompted mitochondrial harms are known not directed by mitochondrial unfurled protein reaction (mtUPR) and autophagy/mitophagy frameworks. The result of the study demonstrated that initiation of autophagy/mitophagy markers coincided with up-regulation of Ub-proteins and lessening of ATP substance without changing mtUPR in rodent liver after silver nanoparticles organization. These discoveries demonstrate that defensive impacts of autophagy/mitophagy markers were overpowered by inconvenient activities of Ub-proteins on the control of mitochondrial capacity, and the offset of the two frameworks in the end bringing about weakened mitochondrial capacity, i.e., diminishment of ATP substance [97].

The Future

Silver nanoparticles are viewed as imperative expansion in the range of nano-materials due to the differing qualities it gives as far as application in different stroll of science. Because of their mitigating and antimicrobial movement silver nanoparticles have occupied fascination of the masses towards themselves to be utilized as embedded material as a part of counterfeit organs. Silver nanoparticles have demonstrated it worth in repressing the microbial multiplication and microbial disease. Moreover silver nanoparticles have included another measurement in the field of prescription concerning wound dressing and simulated implantation and in anticipating postsurgical sullying brought about by organisms. Aside from that silver nanoparticles assume a crucial part and are considered as vital fixings in the planning of monetarily utilized items as a part of commercial ventures [99]. New bits of knowledge about the pharmacological applications, for example, anticancer, larvicidal, therapeutic materials, and gadgets are gathered with these extraordinary silver nanoparticles. Consequently, these biogenetically incorporated silver nanoparticles will bring about a noteworthy result for the field of bio-nano-medicine [100].

Much accentuation has been committed to the antimicrobial and anticancer capability of silver nanoparticles demonstrating their promising qualities for treatment, prophylaxis and control of contaminations, and additionally for conclusion and treatment of various tumor sorts [101].

For an effective interpretation of nanoparticles to the facilities, a few elements should be considered. As a matter of first importance, the properties and attributes of nanoparticle therapeutics should be entirely and thoroughly characterized. All through the writing, it is obvious that the bio-distribution and pharmacokinetics is to a great extent subject to the nanomaterial. Consequently important measures should be done to inspect conceivable poisonous impacts of each nanoparticle created. Despite the fact that there are a few reports expressing "stripped" gold nanoparticles are organically idle (apparent since its restorative use in olden times), the topping specialists may change the poisonous profile of the molecule. Essentially, the hydrodynamic distance across and surface charge may likewise influence the adequacy of the nanoparticle [102].

Conclusion

Silver nanoparticles are picking up prevalence in pharmaceuticals as well as in other partnered and non-unified ventures. Numerous specialists have exhibited the antibacterial, antimicrobial and anti-parasitic action of silver nanoparticles. With the developing awareness for creating natural well-disposed or eco-accommodating procedure in the compound and pharmaceutical ventures, green chemistry is being exploited for developing silver nanoparticles. Several studies have been directed to create silver nanoparticles utilizing plant extracts as reducing or capping agents. Despite giving numerous chances to advancement silver nanoparticles additionally have some potential peril. Numerous studies have been led to bring the light the harmful effects of silver nanoparticles.

Collection of data

The data was collected from different free online sources like-Google scholar, Jamia Hamdard University database and other free online sources.

Acknowledgement

The authors would like to acknowledge the support of all the seniors who played a vital role in shaping the review article.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

1. Israel LL, et al. Ultrasound-Mediated Surface Engineering of Theranostic Magnetic Nanoparticles: An Effective One-Pot Functionalization Process Using Mixed Polymers for siRNA Delivery. J Nanomed Nanotechnol. 2016;7:385.
2. Mistry KR and Sarker DK. SLNs can serve as the New Brachytherapy Seed: Determining Influence of Surfactants on Particle Size of Solid Lipid Microparticles and Development of Hydrophobised Copper Nanoparticles for Potential Insertion. J Chem Eng Process Technol. 2016;7:302.
3. Mistry KR and Sarker DK. SLNs can serve as the New Brachytherapy Seed: Determining Influence of Surfactants on Particle Size of Solid Lipid Microparticles and Development of Hydrophobised Copper Nanoparticles for Potential Insertion. J Chem Eng Process Technol. 2016;7:302.
4. Ingale AG and Chaudhari AN. Biogenic Synthesis of Nanoparticles and Potential Applications: An Eco-Friendly Approach. J Nanomed Nanotechol. 2013;4:165.
5. Kumari VG, et al. Synthesis and Characterization of Pectin Functionalized Bimetallic Silver/Gold Nanoparticles for Photodynamic Applications. J Phys Chem Biophys. 2016;6:221.
6. Saleh TA. Nanomaterials for Pharmaceuticals Determination. Bioenergetics. 2016;5:226.
7. Ulu A, et al. Inhibition of Soluble Epoxide Hydrolase as a Novel Approach to High Dose Diazepam Induced Hypotension. J Clin Toxicol. 2016;6:300.
8. Israel LL, et al. Ultrasound-Mediated Surface Engineering of Theranostic Magnetic Nanoparticles: An Effective One-Pot Functionalization Process Using Mixed Polymers for siRNA Delivery. J Nanomed Nanotechnol. 2016;7:385.
9. Jibowu T. The Formation of Doxorubicin Loaded Targeted Nanoparticles using Nanoprecipitation, Double Emulsion and Single Emulsion for Cancer Treatment. J Nanomed Nanotechnol. 2016;7:379.
10. Asadi M, et al. Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles through Chemical Reduction and its Antibacterial Effect. Research & Reviews: Journal of Food and Dairy Technology. 2015;3.
11. Batool Z, et al. Antimicrobial Resistance of ESBL Producing Coliforms Isolated from Retail Meat Samples. J Biom Biostat. 2016;7:316.
12. Pratibha Muntha. Silver Nanoparticles, Properties, Synthesis & Applications. Research & Reviews: Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2014.
13. Yimer AM. Chemical Preparation, Spectro-Magnetic and Biocidal Studies on Some Divalent Transition Metal Complexes of Schiff’s Base Derived from 1-Phenyl-2-(Pyridin-2-yl)ethane-1,2-dione and Ethylenediamine. Mod Chem appl. 2014;2:122.
14. Banach M, et al. Building Materials with Antifungal Efficacy Enriched with Silver Nanoparticles. Chem Sci J. 2014;5:085.
15. Jaiswal AK, et al. Antimicrobial Activity of Bimetallic Cu/Pd Nanofluids. J Adv Chem Eng. 2016;6:151.
16. Rachuonyo HO, et al. Efficacy of Crude Leaf Extracts of Aloe secundiflora on Selected Enteric Bacterial Pathogens and Candida albicans. J Antimicro. 2016;2:112.
17. Krishnan R, et al. The MIC and MBC of Silver Nanoparticles against Enterococcus faecalis - A Facultative Anaerobe. J Nanomed Nanotechnol. 2015;6:285.
18. Mustafa T, et al. Impact of Gold Nanoparticle Concentration on their Cellular Uptake by MC3T3-E1 Mouse Osteoblastic Cells as Analyzed by Transmission Electron Microscopy. J Nanomedic Nanotechnol. 2011.2:118.
19. Berton V, et al. Study of the Interaction between Silver Nanoparticles and Salmonella as Revealed by Transmission Electron Microscopy. J Prob Health. 2015;3:123.
20. Singh K, et al. Antibacterial Activity of Synthesized Silver Nanoparticles from Tinospora cordifolia against Multi Drug Resistant Strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa Isolated from Burn Patients. J Nanomed Nanotechnol. 2014;5:192.
21. Sharma A and Batra A. Primary Metabolite Profiling of Tinospora cordifolia. Nat Prod Chem Res. 2016;4:221.
22. Ansari MA, et al. Evaluation of antibacterial activity of silver nanoparticles against MSSA and MRSA on isolates from skin infections. Biology and Medicine. 2011;3:141-146.
23. Kataoka Y, et al. Bactericidal and Sporicidal Activities against Pathogenic Bacteria of Direct Flow Electrolyzed Water. J Food Ind Microbiol. 2015;1:105.
24. Ghaly AE and Ramakrishnan VV. Nitrogen Sources and Cycling in the Ecosystem and its Role in Air, Water and Soil Pollution: A Critical Review. J Pollut Eff Cont. 2015;3:136.
25. Shahrokh S, et al. The Impact of Silver Nanoparticles on Bacterial Aerobic Nitrate Reduction Process. J Bioprocess Biotech. 2014;4:152.
26. Hoagland P, et al. Economic sustainability of marine aquaculture. A report to the marine aquaculture task force, Takoma, Park. 2007.
27. Clarke JL, et al. How can plant genetic engineering contribute to cost-effective fish vaccine development for promoting sustainable aquaculture? Plant Mol Biol. 2013;83:33-40.
28. Poveda CM, et al. Utilization of corn gluten meal as a protein source in the diet of white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei. Aquac Nutr. 2015;21:824-834.
29. Li F and Xiang J. Recent advances in researches on the innate immunity of shrimp in China. Dev Comp Immunol. 2013;39:11-26.
30. Xia MH, et al. Dietary niacin levels in practical diet for Litopenaeus vannamei to support maximum growth. Aquac Nutr. 2015;21:853-860.
31. Sivaramasamy E, et al. Enhancement of Vibriosis Resistance in Litopenaeus vannamei by Supplementation of Biomastered Silver Nanoparticles by Bacillus subtilis. J Nanomed Nanotechnol. 2016;7:352.
32. Dewangan AK, et al. Stainless Steel for Dairy and Food Industry: A Review. J Material Sci Eng. 2015;4:191.
33. Tamal Mandal et al. Study of Dairy Industry Wastewater Using Synthesised Hydroxyapatite Nanoparticles: Thermally Activated Nanoparticles, Treatment Efficiency, Isotherm, Thermodynamics, Kinetics Modelling and Optimization Using Artificial Neural Network Modelling. Journal of Industrial pollution control. 2016.
34. Sreelakshmy V, et al. Green Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles from Glycyrrhiza glabra Root Extract for the Treatment of Gastric Ulcer. J Develop Drugs. 2016;5:152.
35. Samuei AR, et al. Studies on synthesis, characterization And application of silver nano- Particles using mimosa pudica leaves. International journal of pharmacy and pharmaceutical Science. 2014;2:453- 455.
36. Peter H. ISO consensus definitions relevant to nano materials and nano technologies. Nano safety for success dialogue. 2011.
37. Steven JO. Silver Nanoparticles: Properties and Applications. NanoComposix, Inc., Sigma Aldrich. 2015.
38. Amin MM, et al. Antimicrobial Activity of Various Extracts of Taraxacum officinale. J Microb Biochem Technol. 2016;8:210-215.
39. Saklani V, et al. Microbial Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles: A Review. J Biotechnol Biomaterial. 2012;S13:007.
40. Yadav JP, et al. Characterization and Antibacterial Activity of Synthesized Silver and Iron Nanoparticles using Aloe vera. J Nanomed Nanotechnol. 2016;7:384.
41. Saleem MA, et al. Formulation and Evaluation of Fucidin Topical Gel Containing Wound Healing Modifiers. American Journal of PharmTech Research. 2015.
42. Saleem MA, et al. Development and evaluation of ofloxacin topical gel containing wound healing modifiers from natural sources. Der Pharmacia Lettre. 2015;7:226-233.
43. Afzal M, et al. Identification of Some Prostanoids in Aloe vera Extracts. Planta Med. 1991;57:38-40.
44. Ramamoorthy L and Tizard IR. Induction of apoptosis in a macrophage cell line RAW 264.7 by acemannan, a beta-(1,4)-acetylated mannan. Mol Pharmacol. 1998;53:415-421.
45. Tizard ID, et al. Effect of acemannan, a complex carbohydrate, on wound healing in young and aged rats. Wounds. 1994;6:201-209.
46. Gandhi H and Khan S. Biological Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles and Its Antibacterial Activity. J Nanomed Nanotechnol. 2016;7:366.
47. Moradpour M, et al. Establishment of in vitro Culture of Rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) from Field-derived Explants: Effective Role of Silver Nanoparticles in Reducing Contamination and Browning. J Nanomed Nanotechnol. 2016;7:375.
48. Cao XL, et al. Drug Resistance and Molecular Characteristics of Escherichia coli Isolates Associated with Acute Pyelonephritis. J Bacteriol Parasitol. 2016;7:260.
49. Bindhani BK and Panigrahi AK. Biosynthesis and Characterization of Silver Nanoparticles (Snps) by using Leaf Extracts of Ocimum sanctum L (Tulsi) and Study of its Antibacterial Activities. J Nanomed Nanotechnol. 2015;S6:008.
50. Trivedi MK, et al. Antimicrobial Susceptibility of Proteus mirabilis: Impact of Biofield Energy Treatment. J Microb Biochem Technol. 2016;8:025-029.
51. Prasad CH, et al. Catalytic Reduction of 4-Nitrophenol Using Biogenic Silver Nanoparticles Derived from Papaya (Carica papaya) Peel extract. Ind Chem Open Access. 2015;1:104.
52. Bhakya S, et al. Catalytic Degradation of Organic Dyes using Synthesized Silver Nanoparticles: A Green Approach. J Bioremed Biodeg. 2015;6:312.
53. Bhandari M, et al. Traditional Ayurvedic medicines: Pathway to develop anti-cancer drugs. J Mol Pharm Org Process Res. 2015;3:130.
54. Ahmed S and SIkram S. Silver Nanoparticles: One Pot Green Synthesis Using Terminalia arjuna Extract for Biological Application. J Nanomed Nanotechnol. 2015;6:309.
55. Ghozali SZ, et al. Biosynthesis and Characterization of Silver Nanoparticles Using Catharanthus roseus Leaf Extract and its Proliferative Effects on Cancer Cell Lines. J Nanomed Nanotechnol. 2015;6:305.
56. Rehman R, et al. Biosynthetic Factories of Essential Oils: The Aromatic Plants. Nat Prod Chem Res. 2016;4:227.
57. Siva sankara pandian G, et al. Influence of Biosurfactant in Biosynthesis of Silver Nanoparticles by Pseudomonas Aeruginosa AMB AS7. IJIRSET. 2014;3:1111-1115.
58. Saborimanesh N and Mulligan CN. Effect of Sophorolipid Biosurfactant on Oil Biodegradation by the Natural Oil-Degrading Bacteria on the Weathered Biodiesel, Diesel and Light Crude Oil. J Bioremed Biodeg. 2015;6:314.
59. Balashanmugam P, et al. Characterization And Antibacterial Activity Of Silver Nanoparticles From Microporus Xanthopus: A Macro Mushroom. IJIRSET. 2013;2:6262-6270.
60. Silva-Santana G, et al. Mice Infection by Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus from Different Colonization Sites in Humans Resulting in Diffusion to Multiple Organs. J Clin Exp Pathol. 2016;6:283.
61. Agrawal P, et al. Green Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles and Their Application in Dental Filling Material. IJIRSET. 2014;3:13038-13052.
62. Malik A, et al. Plant Extracts in Post-Harvest Disease Management of Fruits and Vegetables-A Review. J Food Process Technol. 2016;7:592.
63. Hungund BS, et al. Comparative Evaluation of Antibacterial Activity of Silver Nanoparticles Biosynthesized Using Fruit Juices. J Nanomed Nanotechnol. 20156:271.
64. Mir AS, et al. Analysis of Phytochemistry and Antimicrobial activity of Tridax procumbens Linn. Chem Sci J. 2016;7:132.
65. AparnaMani KM, et al. Evaluation of In-vitro Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Silver Nanoparticles Synthesised using Piper Nigrum Extract. J Nanomed Nanotechnol. 2015;6:268.
66. Huq S, et al. Biological Evaluation of Native and Exotic Plants of Bangladesh. J App Pharm. 2016;8:226.
67. Omprakash V and Sharada S. Green Synthesis and Characterization of Silver Nanoparticles and Evaluation of their Antibacterial Activity using Elettaria Cardamom Seeds. J Nanomed Nanotechnol. 2015;6:266.
68. Loretta OO, et al. In Vitro Biodegradation of Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME) by Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Aspergillus niger. J Bioremed Biodeg. 2016;7:361.
69. El-Deeb NM, et al. Novel Trend in Colon Cancer Therapy Using Silver Nanoparticles Synthesized by Honey Bee. J Nanomed Nanotechnol. 2015;6:265.
70. Asaduzzaman M, et al. Antihyperglycemic Activity, Antihyperlipedemic Activity, Hepatoprotective Activity and Histopathological Analysis of Natural Honey in Streptozotocin Induced Diabetic Rats. J Cytol Histol. 2016;7:402.
71. Singh K, et al. Evaluation of Antimicrobial Activity of Synthesized Silver Nanoparticles using Phyllanthus amarus and Tinospora cordifolia Medicinal Plants. J Nanomed Nanotechnol. 2014;5:250.
72. Xie Z, et al. Coexpression of Genetically Engineered Cyt b5-CYP3A4 Fusion Protein with POR in Sf9 Insect Cells and Functional Characterization of the Expressed Products in vitro. J App Pharm. 2016;8:223.
73. Durairaj B, et al. Larvicidal Potential of Fungi Based Silver Nanoparticles Against Culex Quinquefasciatus Larvae (II and III Instar). J Pharmacol Toxicol Stu. 2014;2:42-49.
74. Gayen S and Ghosh U. Pectinmethylesterase Production from mixed agro- wastes by Penicillium notatum NCIM. 923 in Solid-State fermentation. J Bioremed Biodegrad. 2011;2:119.
75. Banu A and Rathod V. Biosynthesis of Monodispersed Silver Nanoparticles and their Activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis. J Nanomed Biotherapeut Discov. 2013;3:110.
76. Badapanda C, et al. Functional Annotation and Epitope Prediction of Hypothetical Proteins of Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Rv: An Immunoinformatics Approach. J Bioengineer & Biomedical Sci. 2016;6:196.
77. Singh K, et al. Antibacterial Activity of Synthesized Silver Nanoparticles from Tinospora cordifolia against Multi Drug Resistant Strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa Isolated from Burn Patients. J Nanomed Nanotechnol. 2014;5:192.
78. Loretta OO, et al. In Vitro Biodegradation of Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME) byBacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Aspergillus niger. J Bioremed Biodeg. 2016;7:361.
79. Shahaby OE, et al. Evaluation of Antimicrobial Activity of Water Infusion Plant-Mediated Silver Nanoparticles. J Nanomed Nanotechol. 2013;4:178.
80. Borase HP, et al. Phyto-Synthesized Silver Nanoparticles: A Potent Biolarvicidal Agent. J Nanomed Biotherapeut Discov. 2013;3:111.
81. Baskar K, et al. Meliaceae Plant Extracts as Potential Mosquitocides-A Review. Entomol Ornithol Herpetol. 2016;5:172.
82. Mritunjai S and Singh S. Nanotechnology in medicine and antibacterial effect of silver nanoparticles. J. 83. Nanomat. Biostruc. 2008;3:115-122.
83. Mritunjai S and Singh S. Nanotechnology in medicine and antibacterial effect of silver nanoparticles. J. Nanomat. Biostruc. 2008;3:115-122.
84. Mritunjai S and Singh S. Nanotechnology in medicine and antibacterial effect of silver nanoparticles. J. Nanomat. Biostruc. 2008 3: 115-122.
85. Heydrnejad MS and Samani RJ. Sex Differential Influence of Acute Orally-administered Silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) on Some Biochemical Parameters in Kidney of Mice Mus musculus. J Nanomed Nanotechnol. 2016;7:382.
86. Kamat SG and Roy R. Evaluation of Antioxidant Potential of Clarias Batrachus Oil in Alloxan Induced Diabetic Mice (Mus Musculus). J Diabetes Metab. 2016;6:552.
87. Abdolsamad S, et al. The effect of Silver nanoparticles [AgNPs] on chlorophyll A and carotene content [as two natural antioxidants] in the microalgae Chlorella vulgaris. Research & Reviews: Journal of Ecology and Environmental Sciences. 2015.
88. Sarpal AS, et al. Investigation of Biodiesel Potential of Biomasses of Microalgaes Chlorella, Spirulina and Tetraselmis by NMR and GC-MS Techniques. J Biotechnol Biomater. 2016;6:220.
89. Bruneau A, et al. Fate and Immunotoxic Effects of Silver Nanoparticles on Rainbow Trout in Natural Waters. J Nanomed Nanotechnol. 2015;6:290.
90. Kefi JJ, et al. Seasonal Variations of Trace Metal Concentrations in the Soft Tissue of Lithophaga Lithophaga Collected from the Bizerte Bay (Northern Tunisia, Mediterranean Sea). J Aquac Res Development. 2016;7:432.
91. Devasena T and Francis AP. Nanotoxicity-Induced Alzheimer Disease and Parkinsonism: Not Further than Diagnosis. J Alzheimers Dis Parkinsonism. 2015;5:178.
92. Morris B and Behzad F. The Effects of Gold and Silver Nanoparticles on an Enzymatic Reaction Between Horseradish Peroxidase and 3,3',5,5'-Tetramethylbenzidine. Biochem Pharmacol. 2014;3:146.
93. Coccini T, et al. Gene Expression Changes in Rat Liver and Testes after Lung Instillation of a Low Dose of Silver Nanoparticles. J Nanomed Nanotechnol. 2014;5:227.
94. Arroyo CR, et al. Reliable Tools for Quantifying the Morphogical Properties at the Nanoscale. Biol Med. 2016;8:281.
95. Cramer S, et al. The Influence of Silver Nanoparticles on the Blood-Brain and the Blood-Cerebrospinal Fluid Barrier In Vitro. J Nanomed Nanotechnol. 2014;5:225.
96. Erdost HA, et al. Effects of Intracerebroventricular Sugammadex Administration on Central Nervous System in Rats. Brain Disord Ther. 2016;5:206.
97. Lee TY, et al. The Immediate Mitochondrial Stress Response in Coping with Systemic Exposure of Silver Nanoparticles in Rat Liver. J Nanomed Nanotechnol. 2014; 5:220.
98. Bouwman FG, et al. In Vitro, In Vivo Comparison of Cyclosporin A Induced Hepatic Protein Expression Profiles. J Clin Toxicol. 2016;6:299.
99. Haider A and Kang IK. Preparation of Silver Nanoparticles and Their Industrial and Biomedical Applications: A Comprehensive Review. Advances in Materials Science and Engineering. 2015.
100. Firdhouse MJ and Lalitha P. Biosynthesis of Silver Nanoparticles and Its Applications. Journal of Nanotechnology. 2015.
101. Mahendra R, et al. Broad-spectrum bioactivities of silver nanoparticles: the emerging trends and future prospects. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 2014;95:1951-1961.
102. Rochelle R, et al. Intrinsic Therapeutic Applications of Noble Metal Nanoparticles: Past, Present and Future. Chem Soc Rev. 2012;41:2943–2970.